Comparing the Young and the Old Essay Example for Free

Comparing the Young and the Old EssayWe live longer and experience more in life we would become wise to the ways of the world. The nonsensical thing is, this does not always happen. If you listen to the elderly many do become wise that many others seem to protrude stuck in their past, but yet they see they are wise. They can not seem to see the world changing around them. A firsthand example of this for me is my Grandparents. When we talk somewhat money, specific each(prenominal)y the cost of buying a new car they cannot fathom the cost of buying a new car. I remind them of all the rubber features that cars now have but they still resist he idea of replacing their 1985 Buick because of the cost associated with a newer and safer car. On the other hand preteen adults pronto accept changes in their world. Now that we are living in the Information Age an enormous amount of information is readily available at our fingertips. Todays jr. generation knows quite bit more than their grandparents knew at the same age because of this. The problem is that too many of us will allow ourselves to get stuck in our youthfulness as well.The extreme of a so-called typical young adult would be one who at 18 thinks they already know verything they admit to in life. No one, especially an older person can tell them anything about life Another evident contrast between the elderly and the young is their outlook on life. Young adults are more optimistic about the future, whereas their counterparts are more pessimistic. An example might be that you will hear from the legal age of young adults, l want to make a lot of money and retire early, but an older adult might say, Money is not everything as long as you stay healthy you will be happy. Another phrase that I hear quite a bit is to enjoy my youth and to see the world efore I get old. My Grandmother still tells me that to this day. Her belief is that once you reach a certain age when the aches and pains of aging draw you w ill lose your desire to be more active. Older people seem to get set in their ways and typically resist change. They get comfortable with a certain pattern in their lives and do not like this pattern disturbed. They have no tolerance for anything new. My Grandparents are a wakeless example of how change is very difficult.They have lived in their neighborhood for over forty years and its is not safe any more. They refuse to even think about moving to a retirement community. When I ask either of my Grandparents why they wont move they blame each other for not scatty to move. Young adults on the other hand are much more adaptable to change. Most enjoy spontaneity and look forward to new experiences. What it all comes down to is time, experience and most of all the willingness of old and young alike to find and share with each other. I know I can learn much from my elders, I hope they see that they can learn much from me.

Team Leadership and Resolving Conflict Essay Example for Free

Team Leadership and Resolving Conflict EssayIn this paper I go forth add the main points in the unit. The main points in the unit argon the five major leadership perspectives, power and influence, and solvent remainder. I will review the key points by using cited passages from the assigned reading and selections from the unit three course room. I will also summarize course room discussion postings relevant to my central topics.In unit three McShane and Von Glinow (2010) discuss the five major leadership perspectives and list them as Competency, Behavioral, Contingency, Transformational, and connotative (p. 378). There are a variety of shipway to lead and different leaders may see fit to guide in various ways depending on the situation. Leaders must learn how to lead and what perspective to take in critical situations to achieve success. McShane and Von Glinow (2010) says, Leadership is defined as the ability to influence, motivate, and alter others to contribute towards th e effectiveness and success of the organization of which they are members (p. 378).The Competency Leadership Perspective names the distinctive qualities an efficient leader will equivalently give. McShane and Von Glinow (2010) identifies personality, ego concept, integrity, drive, leadership motivation, knowledge of business, cognitive and practical intelligence, and emotional intelligence as valuable leadership traits (p. 362). Based on my professional work experience all(prenominal) good or successful leader I have encountered possessed almost every trait above. The Behavioral Perspective seems to focus on the correlation between behaviors exercised and successful leaders. Leaders who seem to be task and people oriented tend to do better in the world of leadership. McShane and Von Glinow (2010) says, job dissatisfaction are higher among employees who work with supervisors with very low levels of people-oriented leadership (p. 365). Employees who feel their supervisors or man agers dont provide clear tasks and show the effort to depict understanding for their needs will not bode well for that leaders success.The Contingency Leadership Perspective is centered around the idea that each individualist situation warrants a unique combination of leadership tactics. McShane and Von Glinow (2010) says, The contingency perspective of leadership is based on the idea that the most appropriate leadership carriage depends on the situation (p. 365). The Transformational Leadership Perspective basically is about the leader building a mutual vision and demonstrating the way it should be done at all convictions. Leading by example is key to gaining the necessary influences needed to enable followers. If a leader effectively shows their followers they are committed by walking the walk it sustains in building the necessary connection needed between leader and follower. The Implicit Leadership Perspective is based on immovable ideas of what a successful leader should be. McShane and Vin Glinow (2010) says, We are more willing to allow someone to influence us as a leader if that person looks and acts like our prototype of a leader (p. 375).McShane and Von Glinow (2010) describe power as the capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others (p. 300). McShane and Von Glinow (2010) discusses the ways power is gained and through what method which are referent, expert, coercive, reward and legitimate (p. 301). I have encountered every type of power listed above. Based on my past experiences I prefer to use and be managed by referent power. Referent of power allows those in leadership roles to be comingable and allows them to relate to their subordinates which creates a feeling of trust and wish. Once this level of respect is established it will be easier for the leader to use more aggressive types of power methods if need be. For example, I had a supervisor in a preceding(prenominal) position that was able to identify on every level with all of his employees. His communication skills were excellent so this allowed him to gain the trust and respect of his workers.McShane and Von Glinow (2010) says, people have referent power when others identify with them, like them, or otherwise respect them (p.303). McShane and Von Glinow (2010) describes influence as behavior that attempts to alter ones attitude or behavior (p. 309). Knowing how to effectively influence others is key to becoming a successful leader. The influences tactics discussed in our course text are silent authority, discipline control, assertiveness, coalition formation, upward appeal, persuasion, impression worry and ingratiation.Recognizing what combination of power and or influence you need to use in a specific situation is inborn to becoming a successful leader. Resolving conflict in the work place great deal be very difficult to achieve if the right approach isnt taken by management and employees. Broome, DeTurk, Kristjansdottir, Kanata, and G anesan (2002) says, Differences in perspectives, frames of reference, values, norms, and communication styles are often aggravated by stereotypes, prejudices, and misunderstandings, so that decision-making, problem solving and conflict management become extremely complex (p. 240).Interactive Management is a process that helps diffuse potentially explosive conflict issues and allows for a productive resolution for twain parties involved in the conflict. This process involves all parties to first identify the problem, second establish a course of action moving forward, and third build an effective plan that will be successful. With this type of approach to conflict it allows for communication to stay open and gives the conflict a fair chance to be resolved. Broome, DeTurk, Kristjansdottir, Kanata, and Ganesan (2002) says, Devoting time to bring together informed individuals with interest in an issue, and to carefully examine its source, can prevent the waste of time, effort, and othe r resources that would otherwise be devoted to engage ineffective solutions or fighting unnecessary battles (p. 261).In unit three course room discussions Ray 12/9/11 talked about the greatness of the Transformational leaders perspective building a mutual vision and showing their commitment to get that goal accomplished. McShane and Von Glinow (2010) says this about the Transformational perspective, agents of change who create, communicate, and model a shared vision for the team and inspire followers (p. 371). I also feel that it is essential for a leader to get complete support from their followers to ensure a positive outcome. Once a leader has everyone on board with the vision, they are able to start building trust which will help establish a concrete foundation for success.Nakia 12/7/11 also had this to add, In my opinion transformational leaders are the most inspiring leaders. They can take over a horrible company and change the entire culture of the organization. In conclusi on I have summarized the main points in unit three. These points were the five major Leadership Perspectives, power and influence, and resolving conflict. Leaders who understand how to use the right combination of proper perspectives, power and influence will be the most successful leaders. Additionally, successful leaders must know how to resolve conflict effectively.ReferencesBenjamin, Broome, J., DeTurk, S., Kristjansdottir, E. S., Kanata, T., Ganesan, P. (2002). Giving voice to diversity An interactive approach to conflict management and decision- making in culturally diverse work environments. Journal of Business and Management, 8(3), 239-264. Retrieved fromhttp//search.proquest.com/docview/211509295?accountid=27965 McShane, S.L., Von Glinow, M.A. (2010). Organizational Behavior (5th Ed.). New YorkMcGraw- Hill/Irwin.

The Importance Of Data Collection

The Importance Of Data accrualIn this chapter, selective development order of battle provide be carrying let on to meet its aim and objectives. Data collection is a way to describe a process of preparing and collection data. Further much than data collection nooky defined as an important aspect of whatever type of explore study. Any inaccurate data collection may lead to invalid result and affect result of study. In former(a) word, this chapter allow for review method applies in data collection that crack the level of knowledge of the all internet grade workers awargonness to hazardous work and safety and health fosterage. A research study can gain information with two sources which are primary sources and secondary sources. The information that obtains by internet, book, journals and magazines are secondary sources. stock-still call into wonder and questionnaire are classify as primary sources which these two method can obtains information and get a real picture of the study.There are three methods can be carried turn out to collect data. These three methods can define as case study, consultation and questionnaire. In this chapter, researcher decides to use interview to collect data. To make the research more clearly and fully interpreted for achieving three objectives. Researcher forget discuss rationale of the research interview and retool the statement of the research aim. In this chapter, researcher will be explaining the way of conducting the interview questionnaire. However, rationale of the questionnaire design will be included in this research which to enable interviewees understand the questions that stated in questionnaire. Last come outs of this chapter will be determining the method of analysis that selected to evaluate and analysis the data.3.1 Data Collection TechniqueAfter review to method of data collection, the method to be use in store data is qualitative data collection method. The contend of select qualitative da ta collection method it is because qualitative data collection method is more suitable in this research study.3.2 converseInterview can defined as a conversation between two or more people, purpose of interviewer questioning is to obtain information from the interviewee. Beside that, interview can be flexible or inflexible which it is depending on the freedom of formulate the questions and issue being investigated. According to Dr S. G. Naoum, the interview can be classified in two forms which are structure interview and unstructured interview as Fig 3.1Flexible interview structureFlexible interview contents tractableness in interview questionsRigid interview structureRigid interview contentsRigidity in interview questions and their wording3.2.1 Advantages of InterviewInterview is more applicable and useful for a complex situations compare to the other method. If interviewee encountered difficulty in answering questions or unable to understand the questions, the interviewer can dir ect finish up doubt to interviewee and ensure the interviewee is properly understood. In this case interview can obtain a higher understanding. Furthermore, interview will help in collecting depth data and information. The researcher can gain more detailed and accurate data through probe deep in interview situation. give to character interview can produce a higher response rate which interviewee provides the answer through communication as interviewee may not assume reading and writing the answer. Beside that, interviewing has a wider application, especially suitable for those who are week and needinesss reading sciences.3.2.2Disadvantages of InterviewInterview is more time-consuming and expensive compare to other method of research. Interview will spend a lot of time and may not be cost efficient if particular of research live with number of tasks to study. On the other hand, the smell of data is depending on the ability of the interviewer. Quality of data collected powerful ness affected by experience and skill of communication of the interviewer. Interviewee may provide inaccurate information if interviewer being faulty in ambiguous questions to interviewee. Furthermore the other disadvantage is interviewer bias in leading. leading is the way that interviewer guide the interviewee in answering the questions. Verbally may affect the leading by the actual word apply, other than that non-verbally which is body language might mattered the leading during the interview. Any faulty of leading will cause inaccurate data collected. In additional, quality of interaction might affect the quality of data collected. The interaction between interviewer and interviewee might vary from different interview, in the result the quality of data collected may dramatically lower and lack of credibility.3.3 Statement of Research AimIn this research will carried out based on one aim and three objectives. To make the research more credibility, one aim and three objectives w ill apply in design of the interview and conduct the questionnaire. The aim of this study is to determine roles of safety officer to weapon safety tuition programs, in order to create a safe workplace. In achieving this aim, there objectives stated as followingTo highlight the hazard and accidents that close commonly found at construction sites,To identify the scopes and characteristics of safety officer to create a safe workplaceTo determine effectiveness safety training programs for site workers in Malaysia construction sites.These three objectives are generated, after the researcher critically reviews the book, articles and journal. Three objectives might apply in interview through face to face interview to local construction site personnel.3.4 Rationale of Questionnaire DesignThis dissertation title is resort Plan in Construction Site sentry duty Officer Perspective. Safety and health Officer is playing a very important in create a safe workplace. The accident occurs in co nstruction site are usually affect the objective of the project. Questionnaire design may touch on background and organization of interviewee. Questionnaire will identify causes and effect of accident occurs in construction site. The interviewees are request to elaborate the hazard and risk in construction site which to achieve the first objective specialize out by researcher. Furthermore, roles of Safety and Health Officer will be included in the questionnaire, it is to understand task and job done by Safety and Health Officer which related to the second objective of this dissertation. Other than that, questionnaire might investigate the process of hazard judging. The third objective will achieved that the questionnaire will determine the training element which carry out by Safety and Health Officer. The interviewee is requiring to explain the contents of the safety training.3.5 Research SampleThe interviewees were selected based on certain(prenominal) characteristics required t o meet the research objective. In this chapter, the site personnel with experience in safety and health issue and training will be selected. In this case, with experience and knowledge of the interviewee, the data collected from them will become more credibility and accurate. Furthermore, project manager, site supervisor and safety and health officer will be the target population for this study. This survey target on different construction position level of interviewees, it is because every position of work may take in their own opinion and knowledge in safety and health issues. The sampling area will focus in peninsular Malaysia and Sabah construction sites. It is more easier to store up the accurate information and answer.3.6 Method of AnalysisIn this element, the analysis will do based on data that collected from the interviewees. The method of analysis used is trend approach that require to analysis the interactions provided by interviewees. In the analysis part, researcher wi ll describe the out come of interview with ten site personnel in a conversation from. Every question will provided with three answers that collected from the selected interviewees. In the other hand a discussion will be included to analyze and compare the information obtained from the interviewees.3.7 Reason of choose interviewIn this research, interview will carry out to gather data and information. By using this matter, data collected from interviewees will more accurate compare to other matter. If used questionnaire method, the answerings may simply answer the questions, due to respondent might not understand the questions asked. But used interview method, if interviewees not understand the questions asked, the interviewer can explain to them. In the other hand, if interviewees understand the questions asked, the answer provided by them will become credibility.3.7 Potential Problem and Contingency planQuality of data collectedThe problem might encountered during the interview ar e the quality of information and data that collected from the different interviewees. All interviewees are from different background, furthermore they energise different experience and opinion in safety and health issues, so the data that obtained by them may vary. To over come this problem, interviewer might select the interviewees who have number of years experience in construction firm. Beside that, interviewer may interview the site personnel who currently on position project manager or site supervisor or safety and health officer.Low respond rateDuring the interview, the interviewer may encountered hard to make appointment with the interviewees, because not many people are willing to interview. In interviewees opinion, interview are not part of job for them, the interviewees might think spend time to accept interview and answer the questionnaire is wasting time. Therefore, the interviewer have responsibility to minimize the problem that ensure have enough people to accept inte rview. The method can be use to solve this problem is interviewer should list out the company to be interview. Companies selected for this interview should more than 20 companies to avoid some of the people refuse to accept interview.3.8 Rationale of QuestionsThe below questions were designed based on Objective 1.Question 1 Do you think apply Personal Protective Equipment can reduce the number of accident? Why?This question is to identify use of the PPE and purposes apply PPE when site workers carried out the hazardous work in construction site. Interviewees require to explain how their apply PPE when carried out the hazardous works.Question 2 In your opinion, what are the causes of accident happened in construction site?This question attempts to find out the factors and causes of accidents happened in construction site.Question 3 In point of view, what are the effects of accident occurs in the site? Please elaborate.This question attempts to request the interviewees to mentioned th e effect that generated by accidents occur on site.Question 4 How does the first-aid unit locate in construction site?This question attempts to determine how interviewees locate the first-aid unit in their construction site.The below questions were designed based on Objective 2Question 5 In practical standard, what are the roles of a Safety and Health Officer?This question attempts to identify the tasks and works should carry out by a Safety and Health Officer. Furthermore interviewees are requiring to elaborate what are the scopes of work of a Safety and Health.Question 6 Who is responsible for risk assessment and hazard control?This question attempts to find out who is responsible for risk assessment and hazard control.Question 7 What are the procedures for risk assessments?This question attempts to determine process of risk assessment to be carried out before and during the life of project.The below questions were designed based on Objective 3.Question 8 Who is responsible for sa fety and health training?This question attempts to find out who responsible for safety and health training.Question 9 Based on your experience, what are the elements needed to cover during the safety and health training?This question attempts to determine the contains of safety and health training. Beside that, interviewees have to explain what to be trained during the safety and health training.Question 10 In your organization, did the site personnel receive the refresher Safety and Health training? If yes, please explain how frequent the training held and how long of the training period.This question attempts to find out does every construction company have provide refresher Safety and Health training to their workers.

Group Formation And Group Roles

concourse Formation And Group RolesWhich induce is fall apart, a conference plough or an individual work. There is no answer to this question as it has m any(prenominal) facets. Our main focus during the assort assignment was to analyze the governanceal structure culture and management and leadership style. In this essay, I have analyzed and evaluated the oneness aspect during the group work, its approaches and its relevant theories.I have highlighted my beat back and justification of the performance by illustrating the group formation identifying both the aspect positive as well as negative. I have interrelated my cognise with the theories and in any case focused on how group roles played an important role during the group assignment.This essay is divided into four proceeds leaves and interlinked parts. The first part includes Group Formation and Group Roles development and its related issues. The second part focuses on the approaches to the group roles. The third par t focuses on the identifying the cause when a equal situation happens in the organization. The final part focuses on diagnosing or suggesting the various group role models. Conclusion is also included in the end.2.0 conclave FORMATION AND GROUP ROLESAn individuals performance enlighten into an optimum group. It is a shineion of what I have written in my personal diary and also, from the recording of the meeting.The group passes through five clearly defined stages of development, which they labeled as forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning (Tuckman, 1965 Tuckman and Jensen, 1977)2.1 FORMINGIn my viewpoint, forming a group before doing a task is an important issue. Our Group preserve be called FORMAL group, which was deliberately created to complete the take to. Initially, I was feeling uncomfort adapted with the group because our ideas and way of thinking were non alike. It was formed because we were sitting adjacent to severally many different. I thought t o form a group with people who have opinions well-nigh the subject and had been always pop issuespoken. In our group, four components were from same nationality and one from other nationality. All the members from the same nationality were from different corners of the country.I believe point of doing an assignment is not only going along with group plainly also to work on both(prenominal)thing, which is unknown to you. This is the reason we inflexible to have diversification in the group. Diversification is important because we get to know about the working purlieu of the other nationalities. It was also a test of adaptability. In the group, I think important role is of a Leader but no one emerged as a leader within the group because e very(prenominal)one wants to work on of its own in their comfortable space.2.2 STORMINGOn our first group meeting, we had a conversation about the selection of organization. We had storming two-hour session and were discussing to either select the organization that has a worldwide reach or to select a national organization. I was favoring to have a national organization because it ordain be names us an advantage since we dont have much experience person in the group. At the end of the session, we persistent to take a national organization for various reasons. Group meeting left us with various questions 1) Which kind of organization should be taken?2) How can we expediency our project?3) From where and how can we collect data?4) Evaluation of the organization?After the meeting, it was decided that everyone has to come up with one organization and have to work on the questions above within a week. I think two members didnt like the way the process was going on. While coming from the meeting, they told me to focus on Something concrete and they were feeling shy to give out the opinions. I asked them to relieve everything in an email and send it to everyone in the group.2.3 NORMINGNorming is a period where we should tr ust each other and try to develop an atmosphere where everyone can work. Initially, I was unhappy with group but after our first meeting, I felt little relaxed that some members were responding and broad out the opinions. The member whom I suggested to give out the mails didnt send any e-mail neither they came with any organization and its working in the second meeting. So, the other three members gave out their lead and their approveive organization. The member from the other nationality gave out the best suggestion and was decided to choose it as a topic. When we were dividing out the sections of the outline, members including myself showed some anger and irritation.Due to domination by one member, no one was able to choose theirs respective topics and roles. My role to endure the leader of the group was not accepted by the other member. The other member treasured no one to become the leader in the group. I believe everybody has an intention to become the leader. Since, ther e was no leader. Everybody chose their role in a way that even they were not even aw be of the responsibilities with the role.The main motive of the group is to able to gratuity the best work you can do as group and also not letting the other group members down. This thing actually calmed me down and then, decided to work on some other aspect of the organization. Altercation happened mingled with other members as well for the same reason. Nobody was willing to get out of his comfortable zone. We also decided to communicate with each other regularly, because it has been seen that group who are not performing well is a lack of communication and friendship but it doesnt come off.2.4 PERFORMINGThis is the crucial point of the group, which test the ability and consensus within the group. After working for more than 2 weeks and giving out suggestion through meetings and emails, no one including myself had completed the work. From the initial period of the group formation till the time of performing, we had lot of contradiction within the group and were not getting along but motivation to give the best project always had given us to move forward and also to perform. During our group performance, I think sections in the outline were not goodly drawn as the data that was collected was colliding with each others work. My part was to work on the organization structure. It was very lengthy but with help of other members I was able to finish it in time. Sometimes, when I had any problem with the structure, my other members were willing to help me. compensate at end of the project, I believe delegation of work was not done properly. If it had been, then we could have made a better project.2.5 ADJOURNINGAnxiety and earnestness didnt allow me to sleep for two nights before submission. I feel that I have given out my best in this project. After the completion of the project and reading the project again gave me a sense that anyhow work can be done. After submitting the a ssignment, everybody in the group shook hands with each other and also celebrated for the submission. During the project, I made new relationship with members and also, decided to take one of the members for the next group assignment (International Banking).Our group had passd the determinations what we decided in the initial stage and thus, was the time to adjourn the group.We regularly confront the problem at several times. As a member of the group, we regularly faced the problem at different times. There was a cycle of storming, norming and performing at every stage.3.0 APPROACHES TO GROUP ROLESThis part of the essay, firstly I would like to write about the problems that I have faced while working with group. Secondly, how I could have made it better or will be acting on the resembling situations in the future. The experience I had and the problem I faced will be an advantage in my future assignments, as it will give me a better understanding of the roles.We have followed the model of Benne and Sheats (1948) to achieve our goals. The role that we have mutually delegated to every member was different.Firstly, Information-Giver is a person who finds out all the relevant information before moving forward. Also, clarifies the problem if there is something missing or unclear. In our second meeting, we decided to assign one member to gather all the information. He provided us with the primary data but he did not make clarifications on some issues. He gave us the overview of the organization but was never able to provide with the insights of the organization. So, everyone in the group has to their relative research about their work, which gave us conflict between our works.Secondly, we decided to communicate and work at all times. Whenever I was asked to give out Opinions on any subject, I was willing to do that. Sometimes, even I cannot suggest something on some issues until and unless I have the proper evidence to support it. I asked for the help if I am in a problem or not able to understand, members willingly helped me. I would say everyone in a group was an opinion giver. Sometimes, opinions and suggestion are followed by the egos and domination. Since, our group was a leaderless group. Everybody in the group wanted to dominate the group. At some point, I felt the same but I have realized that giving out opinions doesnt mean that the person can lead the group until and unless has the characteristics of the leaders.Thirdly, for the conclusion of the topic, we assigned one of the members as an Evaluate-critic. As he was given the authority to look after the each part of the topic and critically analyze and write down the conclusion accordingly. He started criticizing the points that we have written also belittling us. After the submission of the assignment, he was boasting himself and was severe to take credit from other members. If I had been in the same position, I would never try to take the credit of the people and would also appr eciate the work of others.Fourthly, the main problem we faced during our group was that one of member possesses the traits of the Dominator. From the beginning till adjourning of the group, the member was trying to show him as a leader but a leader is different from dominator. He was forcing everyone in the group to do the work accordingly and roles that he has assigned but a leader gives intimacy to the other members to work according to their characteristics. Conflict mounted due to this issue in the group. This instance gave me an experience that there is a little difference between a leader and a dominator. There is always an advantage to have a leader over dominator in the group.4.0 EFFECTS OF GROUP ROLES IN AN shapingIn this section, I would like to evaluate the Benne and Sheats (1948) Group roles system into an organization taking my personal experience into consideration. I will consider the similar situation in an organization in terms of Group Formation and Group Roles. Benne and Sheats(1948) encouraged Social role and Beblin (1996) encouraged Team Role, t he two most common frames of reference on group roles which have been suggested below-In my perspective, Team role should be considered within an organization. psyche work is different from teamwork but from my perception and perspective of an organization, Team role can lead to a better understanding between the members of the group.As I have experienced, Belbin (1981,1993,1996) argues the Benne and Sheats (1948) Functional Role Theory by stating that firstly, people in organization are selected on the basis of experience or ability, not on the basis of personal characteristics. Secondly, it also limits the likelihood that they will be successful in other roles.The performance of any organization can be impeded by various problems.Firstly, I would like talk about Maslows (1954) hierarchy of needs. Self-esteem in Hierarchy has been described as achievement and respect for each other that can be obtained by providing appropriate Group role to the person. Once the person is satisfied with what he is doing and it is going with his personality, he will perform better. I can relate the self-esteem with the problem we had in our group .If everyone was given their part according to their characteristic, and then we could have worked produced better result.Secondly, the combine of opinion should be made clearly without any egos and attitude. Knowledge Sharing can lead to the better work. Knowledge sharing always gives a better working environment and also, a competitive work. (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995 Nonaka and Kanno, 1998 Grant, 2005). This similar situation happened in our group, opinions were given to help each other but egos and attitude always followed and originator to dominate. Knowledge sharing should be made without any hesitation and greed.Thirdly, I would like to Benne and Sheats (1948) model as the most of the positive aspect much(prenominal) as evaluator-critic c an be transformed into Recognition Seeker (Dysfunctional) if evaluator-critic is given importance. As I mentioned above, Evaluator-critic was trying to get recognition as an individual. If the similar situations happens in the organization, this might result into a havoc because every individual is working for the organization ,not for the individual recognition. This will create disharmony in the group, which will reflect for the organization.I would like to suggest on the basis of the group role that in organization Belbin(1996) nine team role should be followed to achieve the goal and every member should be chosen in terms of their characteristics. This will extend the productivity as well as the level of healthy disputation within the organization. This is how an organization can be benefited from the Group roles.5.0 DIAGNOSIS OF GROUP ROLES APPROACHI have already argued and suggested that organization needs a proper set of roles, which can be provided to the employee and empl oyer for the betterment of the organization. I have argued that sometimes, Task role and Maintenance role theory of Benne and Sheats (1948) transform into the Individual roles, which are self-centered and personal motives, arises.There are many concepts of Group such as Benne and Sheats(1948), Bales(1950) but most popular in modern long time is Beblin(1996). The table below shows the group roles suggest by Beblin(1996).The theory above shows coherent relationship with the organization group roles. This will not only increase the performance of the organization, also the interaction between and within the groups. This can work for the big organization but with smaller group of 9-10 people.However, there are no theories without criticism. Beblins theory has been criticized by the Aitor Aritzeta et. Al (2007). Firstly, he argued that team success cannot be measured with this theory and hard to recognize that all the nine roles have been opted. Secondly, the theory takes excessive psyc hological perspective on role. Thirdly, the theory is unable to differentiate between different types of tasks.David Butcher and Catherine Bailey (2000) argued that Dream Team, where all member are pull to one work, and all the members are present at decision -taking time. They felt this is impractical and undesirable.6.0 CONCLUSIONI have considered many issues and explained it in terms of approaches, effects in organization and also, suggested the better way to assign the group roles. However, during my group work, I have taken the Benne and Sheats(1948) Theory which resulted in a total performance but If I would have used Beblin(1996) theory for the group roles in my group, then we could have performed better. Although, every theory has a criticism and flaws but this can be suggested that organization of today world uses Beblin Theory for group roles.I would also like to conclude that problems would never be reflected on any other assignments. The key lesson learned from this as signment that people should be judged by their characteristics and assigning the roles accordingly. It is necessary to move forward as described by Tuckman and Jensen(1965) to achieve the goals.

EEG-Based Processing Approach for Pain Detection

electroencephalogram-Based touch on Approach for Pain DetectionAbstract-To detect the suffering based on EEG c either attentions variability, several efforts has been made but no promising result has been achieved yet. In this study, we propose different features to classify pan. EEG signals of 28 healthy volunteers were recorded continuously musical composition they experience pain finished the known ice-water paradigm. To access the de-correlated EEG sources, Independent Component Analysis(ICA) scheme was utilize. Among them, the artifact and noise sources were move outd and accordingly pain dependent sources were determined and projected back. ahead the miscellany, some features were extracted from the EEG signal. To select the best features, sequential forward selection (SFS) was applied which also eliminates the redundancy. The classification results provide 89% , 90% and 94% accuracy when one nearest neighbor (1NN), 3NN and support vector machine (SVM) were used, re spectively.Keywords EEG sources, pain dependent features, entropy, feature selection.IntroductionBackonja et al. 1 proposed an ice-water bath as a graduated painful stimulus, termed as the cold presser demonstrate (CPT). in this study, CPT is applied as the pain inducing paradigm. Some studies, inveatigated the switchs during pain. The result of some previous studies2-5 was account as an increase in the Delta and beta mountains and a moderate in the Alpha rotary during pain.In an other study, a tonic pain stimulus 6 increase the power of Delta, Beta-III and da Gamma bands and decreased the Theta, Alpha-I and Alpha-II band powers. Intramuscular injection of hypertonic saline increases the Beta power7. In another research, inducing Capsaicin caused no significant change in the EEG bands. Another study implied changes of Alpha band activities interact in pain-perception process 8. In another research, two levels of pain were classified by Nave Bayes classifier which produces 86. 38.4% classification accuracy 21. In a different approach, fMRI images of the participants brain were sight while they were experiencing pain by heat stimulus generalization which resulted in 94% accuracy 9.The most repeated findings of these studies is a general increase in the power of Beta band simultaneous to a decrease in the Alpha band with a possible coherence increases across different bands, as the brain response to pain.In Section 2, the data written text and the preprocessing are explained In Section 3, the methods are described in detail in Section 4, the results are presented. Section 5 concludes the results. entropy Recording and Preprocessing2.1. Data RecordingFor arranging EEG signals, 30 electrodes were used by Scanlt EEG recording system. A cap based on 10-20 electrode placement system was used for recording. The impedance of all electrodes was less than 5 kilo ohms. The sampling rate was adjusted at 250 hertz and a bandpass filter with cut-off frequencies adju sted in 0.5 and 47 hertz was implemented to the signal.In previous studies, laser, cuff pressure, hot/ice water, Electrocutaneous stimulation 10-13, have been used to induce pain. In this study, the ice-water (also called CPT) was selected to have minimum side-effect. The recording procedure took place in a quiet room. First, to achieve a baseline recording for apiece volunteer, a 30 second EEG signal were recorded in the resting position, which is called no-pain class. Then, by putting their hand in the cold water (1.70.2centigrad) after a while, they reported the pain. The recording continues till the tolerating time for each(prenominal) subject.With respect to the fact of artifacts presence in the EEG signals and to record the noises with higher(prenominal)er quality, some electrodes on the face muscles were put to detect EMG artifacts. in any case, EOG is one of the other artifact sources in EEG.2.2. EEG artefacts Eliminating Principal component analysis (PCA) and regressio n methods14 are the methods used for eliminating the EEG artifacts such(prenominal) as muscle artifacts and eye artifacts. Also ICA has been introduced more effective for decomposing the recorded signals into uncorrelated sources 14 which is applied here to remove the EEG artifacts.2.2.1. Independent Component Analysis (ICA)The components x i displaystyle x_i of the observed random vector x = ( x 1 , , x m ) T displaystyle x=(x_1,ldots ,x_m)T are generated as a sum of the independent components s k displaystyle s_k x i = a i , 1 s 1 + + a i , k s k + + a i , n s n displaystyle x_i=a_i,1s_1+cdots +a_i,ks_k+cdots +a_i,ns_n weighted by the mixing weights a i , k displaystyle a_i,k 15X= AS (1)Where S is sources vector, X is the recorded signals (EEGs) matrix.To calculate its inverse or pseudo-inverse, termed as W, the equation(3) is usedS =WX, where W=A-1 (2)2.2.2. EOG Artifact To remove the most important EEG artifacts, which are EOG and EMG artifacts, the similar process was done. As the Fp1 channel is the most contained EEG channel, the correlation of this channel with all determined sources, was calculated Eq.4 is the correlation formula. If the value exceeded 0.7, the corresponding source was selected as the suspicious EOG source16. (3)Where Ri is the correlation of the ith source with the recorded signal at Fp1.Fig.1 shows the spectral lay out of the determined EOG source which is mostly on foreahed space.Shanon Entropy (4)Fractal DimensionL(k)= (5)Fig. 1. Spectral play of EOG component2.2.3. EMG ArtifactsTo remove the EMG artifacts, the correlation of all sources with the frontalis and temporalis channels were computed and the ones which were more than 0.7 were considered as the probable EMG sources. Commonly, EMG sources have higher power at high frequencies. Therefore, to precisely detect EMG sources, in addition to the correlation criterion, their brain map were investigated17. The scalp map and power spectrum of one of the detected EMG artifacts i s shown in Fig. 2.(b)Fig. 2. An EMG source (a)Scalp map,(b) Activity military force SpectralMethodsThis study is started from the data acquisition part in which 28 healthy subjects participated. We record their EEG signals through the resting condition (without imposing any pain stimulus) and pain condition.Due to the presence of artifact and noise in the recorded signals, we apply independent component analysis (ICA) to EEG in order to remove the effect of electrooculogram (EOG), electromyogram (EMG) and movement artifacts. Non-artifact sources were projected back to electrode space and various features were extracted from them. To remove the redundancy and increasing the discriminability, an approach for selecting discriminative ones, Sequential Forward Selection(SFS) was applied. The prospect classifiers were support vector machine (SVM) and one nearest neighbor (1NN).3.1. FeaturesThe features used in this research are as follows band power of the pain sources in five bands (De lta, Theta, Alpha, Beta, Gamma), fractal dimension, Shannon entropy, approximate entropy and spectral entropy.As a brief description to the features, Five frequency bands including Delta (0-4 Hz), Theta (4-8 Hz), Alpha (8-13 Hz), Beta (13-30 Hz), and Gamma (30Hz) were elicited for each time frame, from each channel. 17.Shannon entropy 18 measures the amount of irregularity in a distribution.Fractal dimensionmeasures the irregularity or roughness of a signal in a time frame19.The table below, demonstrates the brief procedure of calculating the features.Where P()are the probabilities occurred in the ith bin.is thethe average length, L(k) is the average length.3.2. Feature selectionThe high number of features extracted in this study, from 30 channels inside each time frame caused a high amount of redundancy.Search strategies need an objective function to select the suitable subset of features. This objective function is usually a statistical/ information/distance based criterion or th e classifiers feedback, which are called filter and wrapper, respectively. Filter methods are fast and does not bias to the classifier type, while wrapper methods usually provide better results at high computational complexity cost.3.2.1. Sequential Forward Selection (SFS)Sequential forward selection utensil starts with empty set of features and repeatedly adds the most significant features to reach the criterion20.Here the criterion is selected as the classification accuracy with the objective of SFS selects the most discriminative algorithm.3.3. Classifiers 2 well-known classifiers, 1-NN and SVM, were used in this study. 1-NN is a local and nonlinear classifier, which is proper for classifying multimodal distributed samples41. From another angle, SVM with a suitable kernel is capable of classifying samples of two classes with overlap, which provides a corking generalization property21.3.4. ClassificationInvestigating brain map through CPT gives us valuable information about the classification possibility. Two frequency ranges, centered at 2Hz (Delta) and 9.8Hz (Alpha), are observed as the most pain dependent features 3-5,8,22,23. The average brain map over all the subjects, in the Delta (Fig. 3) and Alpha (Fig. 4) bands, are exhibited in pain and no pain class.abFig. 3. The average brain map of subjects at 2Hz (Delta band) a) Non-pain, b) painabFig. 4. The average brain map of subjects at 9.8Hz (Alpha band) a) Non-pain, b)painFig. 3 illustrates an increase in the power of Delta band by smell the pain, which changes the exertion focus region from top to the right hemisphere. These findings were previously reported 3-5, 23. In contrast, by feeling more pain, the power of Alpha band is decreased in the frontal lobe and increased in occipital lobes, as shown in Fig. 4, which is as the results obtained in former studies 3-5, 8, 22-23.It is noted that the base of the classifier was just built up according to the detected differences on the spatial distribution of these two band power features. To use the other EEG features and find a discriminate subset of features, SFS was run. Therefore, by adding the other features, which were selected by SFS, it was expected to achieve a higher classification accuracy.ResultsEEG signals from 30 electrodes were recorded and then EOG and EMG artifacts were removed by the ICA method, described in Section 2. Through the preprocessing, EMG or EOG sources and the sources caused by the unstable connection of an electrode on the scalp, was projected outward of the brain.The base of the classifier was just established upon the significant changes in the spatial distribution of band power features through feeling pain (Fig. 4). since reality is that applying just the selected band power features does not provide convincing results, the grammatical construction while considering the other features was proposed. The results of pain classification by the proposed structure and those band power features, which w ere selected through visual inspection, is shown in flurry I. For now and on, all of the presented classification results in this paper is achieved by ten-times ten-folds cross validation was execute for the cross validation phase. The classification accuracies are illustrated in elude IV, once SVM was considered for all nodes and the other time 1-NN classifier was assigned. add-in I. The pain classification results of only the selected band power featuresClassification1-NN3-NNSVMPain Versus Non-pain686654Table II shows the classification accuracies achieved by applying svm to the features that is introduced as the discriminative ones in previous studies 6-8, 10, 23-24.Table II. The comparative results of pain and non-pain classification by applying the previous suggested features6-8, 10, 23-24.Suggested Band Power Features in the Previous StudiesClassification Accuracy (%)Alpha band65Beta and Alpha bands61Delta and Alpha and Beta bands68Theta and Alpha bands57Delta and Beta bands 61Alpha and Gamma bands62Delta, Beta and Alpha Gamma bands59These numerous features, in each time frame, were concatenated into successive feature vectors and therefore the classifiers were encountered with high-dimensional vectors. To remove the redundancy and customize an optimized subset of features , SFS was adopted, to select the pain dependent features and therefore improve the final results.Nevertheless, while using wrapper method, the selected feature set depends on the classifier, the selected subsets of features are not necessary equal for SVM and 1-NN. SFS was run for each classifier separately. Also, since the test and train sets are changed through different folds, the selected features in different validation folds are not identical. As all of the reports which use wrapper approach, to demonstrate the angle of inclination of selected features, the common features through folds were reported. The selected features by SFS at each node are listed in Table III. and for de ploying SVM at all nodes presented and the 1NN features are listed in Table IV.Table III. The selected features by SFS for SVM and 1-NNClassifierList of the selected featuresSVMAlpha, Delta, Beta and Gamma bands, Shannon entropy, and fractal dimensionK-NNAlpha, Delta, Beta bands and Shannon entropyThe achieved classification results by applying the EEG features, customized using SFS, are illustrated in Table VI.Table VI. Classification accuracy of the painAccuracy (%)ClassifierStage94SVMPain vs. Non-Pain891-NN903-NNAs it is stated the list of selected features depends on the type of classifier. reciprocationEEG signals is the only non-invasive physiological-base measuring data that quantitatively records the brain activity. Also, the research in pain measurement is button up in the beginning compared to other applications such as speech processing.As it is mentioned, among the artifact removal schemes such as regression with PCA, adaptive filter and match filter, the best known met hod is still ICA. It provides this opportunity to eliminate different noise and artifact roots in the ICA space, where all of the sources were statistically independent. Some constraints were considered to assure us that the suspicious noisy sources were justly selected. In other words, the variation of spatial distribution of the Delta and Alpha bands are visualized by brain map images through the time and this variation was translated into a succesfull classification.We tried to select informative features to reveal the pain changes as highlight as possible. In this regard, instead of eliciting features from the correlated EEG signals on the scalp electrodes, variety of the known features were extracted from the pain dependent EEG source signals. Moreover, instead of ad-hoc methods, a heuristic search strategy, called as SFS, was employed to automatically select the suitable features. The high classification result demnstarates the propriety of the whole process.References1 C.S. Cleeland, Y. Nakamura, E.W. Howland, N. R. Morgan, B. A. Edwards, M. Backonja, Effects of oral morphine on cold pressor tolerance time and neuropsychological performance, Neuropsychopharmacology, vol. 15, pp. 252-262, 1996.2 A.C.N. Chen, P. Rappelsberger, Brain and pitying Pain topographic EEG Amplitude and Coherence Mapping, Brain Topography, vol. 7, pp.196-205, 1994.3 A.C.N. Chen, P. Rappelsberger, O. Filz, Topology of EEG Coherence Changes May Reflect Differential Neural Network energizing in Cold and Pain Perception, Brain Topography, vol. 11 , pp. 125-132 , 1998.4 S. Ferracuti, S. Seri , D. Mattia , G. Cruccu, Quantitative EEG modifications during the cold water pressor test hemispheric and hand differences, Int. Journal of Psychophysiology, vol. 17, pp.261-268, 1992.5 A.C.N. Chen, S.F. Dworkin, J. Haug, J. Gehrig, topographical brain measures of human pain and pain responsivity, Pain, vol. 37 , pp.129-140, 1989.6 P. Veerasarn, C.S.Stohler, The effect of experimental muscle pain on the background electrical brain activity, Pain, vol. 49 , pp.349-360, 1992.7 P.-F Chang, L. Arendt-Nielsen, T. Graven-Nielsen, P. Svensson, A.C.N. Chen, Topographic effects of tonic cutaneious nociceptive stimulation on human electroencephalograph, Neuroscience Letters, vol. 35 , pp. 49-52, 2001.8 W. Penga, C. Babiloni, Y. Maod, Y. Hua, Subjective pain perception mediated by alpha rhythms, Biological psychological science , vol. 109 ,pp. 141-150, 2015.9 T. Wager, L. Atlas, M. Lindquist, M. Roy, C. Woo, E. Kross. An fMRI-Based Neurologic Signatureof Physical Pain, The new england journal of medicine, vol. 368, pp. 1388-1397, 2013.10 E. Schulz , A. Zherdin , L. Tiemann, C. Plant , M. Ploner , Decoding an individuals sensitivity to pain from the multivariate analysis of EEG data, Cereb Cortex, vol. 22, pp. 18-23, 2012.11 P, Ravn , R. Frederiksen , A. Skovsen , LL. Christrup , Mu. Werner , Prediction of pain sensitivity in healthy volunteers, Journal of Pain Research, vol. 5, pp. 326-313, Aug. 2012.12 S. Walter, S. Gruss, K. Limbrecht-Ecklundt, H. C. Traue, P. Werner, A. Al-Hamadi, N. Diniz, G. Moreira da Silva, A. O. Andrade Automatic pain quantification using autonomic parameters, Psychology Neuroscience, vol. 7 , pp.363-380, Nov. 2014.13 S.Gruss , R.Treister , P.Werner , S .Crawcour , A .Andrade , S .Walter ,Pain Intensity experience Rates via Biopotential Feature Patterns with Support Vector Machines, Biopotential Pattern of Pain via Machine Learning, vol. 10, oct. 2015.14 S. Makeig, AJ. Bell, T-P. Jung, TJ.Sejnowski, Independent component analysis of electroencephalographic data, Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, vol. 8 , pp.145-151, 1996.15 Sheng-Hsiou Hsu, Tim R. Mullen, Tzyy-Ping Jung, Gert Cauwenberghs, Real-Time Adaptive EEG Source Separation Using Online recursive Independent Component Analysis, IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng, vol. 24, 3, March 2016.16 T.Jung, S.Makeig, C.Humphries, T.Martin, J. Vicente , T.Sejnowski, R emoving electroencephalographic artifacts by screen door source separation, Psychophysiology, vol. 37 , pp. 163-178, 2000.17 F.Ghassemi, Independent Component Analysis of ERP for levelingVisual Sustained Attention, Amirkabir University of Technology , 2007.18 I. A. Rezek, S. J. Roberts, Stochastic complexity measures for 33 D. Abasolo1, R. Hornero1, P. Espino, D. A lvarez1, J.Poza, Entropy analysis of the EEG background activity in Alzheimers disease patients, Physiol Meas, vol.27, pp.241-253, 2006.19M. Sabeti, S. Katebi, R.Boostani, Entropy and complexity measures for EEG signal classification of schizophrenic and control participants, Elsevier Journal of Artificial intelligence in medicine, vol. 47 , pp.263-274, , 2009.20 S. Enshaeifar, S. Kouchaki, C. Cheong Took, and S. Sanei, quadruplet Singular Spectrum Analysis of Electroencephalogram with Application in Sleep Analysis, IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng. Vol. 24, 1, Jan. 2016.21 M. Gram, C. Graversen, S.S. Olesen, A.M. Dre wes, Dynamic spectral indices of the electroencephalogram provide new insights into tonic pain. Clinical Neurophysiology, vol. 126, pp. 763-771, April 2015.22 M. Huber , J. Bartling, D. Pachur, S.Woikowsky, S. Lautenbacher, EEG responses to tonic heat pain, Exp Brain Res, vol. 173, pp. 14-24, 2006.23 R. Dowman, D. Rissacher, S. Schuckers, EEG indices of tonic pain-related activity in the somatosensory cortices,See comment in PubMed Commons belowClinical Neurophysiology, vol. 119 , pp. 1201-1212 , 2008.

Greek And Roman Art Essay -- essays research papers

The Greek Theater     "The arts of the western world have been largely dominated by the artistic standards established by the Greeks of the classical layover" (Spreloosel 86). It is from the Greek word theatron, meaning a place for posing, that we get our word theater. According to James Butler, "The Greeks were the first people to erect special structures to bring audiences and theatrical performers together" (27). "The theaters were normally located near a populated atomic number 18a at the bottom of or cut out of a carefully selected, tip hillside overlooking a seascape, a plain, or a city" (Butler 30). "They eventually with few exceptions consisted of three distinct parts theatron (viewing place) for spectators, orchestra (dancing place) where the chorus and actors performed and a later addition, a skene (scene building), which provided a scenic backing" (Butler 30).     The theatron was the place where t he audience sat. At first the spectators sat on the ground, later on wooden bleachers and finally on tiers of rocknroll seats which followed the circular shape of the orchestra and the natural contours of the countryside. The theatron surrounded the orchestra on three sides. Describing the theater of Dionysus, David Taylor writes, " The spectators seats were in a curving area, a little more(prenominal) than a semi-circle and slope down to the center" (Taylor 19). Even though all classes of people attended the theater in that respect were reserved areas for the more prestigious, such as the king.     " The audience arranged in rows, looked out across a rounded orchestra" (Kennedy 1102). Because most of the early dramas were religious and required a sacrificial ceremony, a thymele (an altar or sacrificial table) was located in the center of the orchestra. The orchestra was where the chorus and actors performed. Arnott states, " the nucleus o f the drama was the chorus" (Arnott 9). David Taylor comments, " The theater actually did start without any separate actors there was only the chorus" (15). Later actors were added, but the chorus still remained the center of attention. The audience sat at a considerable distance from the orchestra and looked down on the performance. Although the amount of peak perceived was limited, they of... ... cook it and the figures would still show up as red, while the background would come out black. This allowed for more attention to detail as well as the ability to use foreshortening and shadowing. The use of shadowing is more than obvious on the cylix with the figure of a youth sitting on a stone surrounded by large apatropaic eyes. The ability to foreshadow is shown in many other red-figured works that were done during and around that time.     The differences that are found between these four pieces of art can be traced back to the differences that exi sted between the two cultures. Even though there are similarities, the differences outweigh them by far. The purpose of the popish Mummy Portrait of a Man and the Mummy Portrait of a Young Woman differ completely from that of the Greek Black-Figured Psykter and the Red-Figured Kylix Depicting a Young Athelete. The styles of the paintings are also very different as well. The amazing thing that is to noticed is that regardless of the differences that exist, both the Greek and the Roman pieces are considered to be masterpieces of art. The differences that are found add to the uniqueness that each one entails.

Internet Access: Flat Fee Vs. Pay-per-use :: essays research papers

lucre Access Flat Fee vs. Pay-Per-Use     Most Internet users argon either not charged to entryway knowledge, or paya low-cost flat fee. The Information throughway, on the other hand, will kindredly be based upon a pay-per-use model. On a gross level, one might say thatthe payment model for the Internet is closer to that of broadcast (or perhapscable) television while the model for the Information SuperHighway is likely tobe more like that of pay-per-view T.V.     "Pay-per-use" environments affect user access habits. "Flat fee"situations encourage exploration. Users in flat-fee environments navigatethrough webs of information and escape to make serendipitous discoveries. "Pay-per-use" situations give the public the incentive to focus their attention onwhat they know they already want, or to look for well-known items previouslyrecommended by others. In "pay-per-use" environments, people tend to follow moretr aditional paths of discovery, and seldom explore totally unexpected avenues."Pay-per-use" environments discourage browsing. Imagine how a persons readinghabits would adjustment if they had to pay for each article they looked at in amagazine or newspaper.     Yet many of the most interesting things we learn ab show up or find come from undermentioned unknown routes, bumping into things we werent looking for. (Indeed,Thomas Kuhn makes the claim that, even in the hard sciences, real breakthroughsand interesting discoveries only come from following these unconventional routesKuhn, Thomas, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago University ofChicago Press, 1962).     And people who have to pay each time they use a piece of information arelikely to increasingly rely upon specialists and experts. For example, in asituation where the reader will have to pay to read each paragraph of backgroundon Bosnia, s/he is more likely to rely up on State Department summaries insteadof paying to become more generally informed him/herself. And in the seventies and1980s the library world learned that the introduction of expensive pay-per-usedatabases discouraged individual exploration and introduced the need forintermediaries who specialized in searching techniques.Producers vs. Consumers     On the Internet anyone can be an information provider or an informationconsumer. On the Information SuperHighway most people will be relegated to therole of information consumer.     Because services like "movies-on-demand" will drive the technologicaldevelopment of the Information SuperHighway, movies need for high bandwidthinto the home and only narrow bandwidth coming back out will likely dominate.(see Besser, Howard. "Movies on Demand May Significantly Change the Internet",Bulletin of the American Association for Information Science, October 1994)Metaphorically, this will be like a ten-lane highway coming into the home andonly a tiny path leading back out (just wide enough to take a credit card number